英语考研长难句练习题和解析
“绒绒绒绒”通过精心收集，向本站投稿了7篇英语考研长难句练习题和解析，以下是小编整理后的英语考研长难句练习题和解析，欢迎阅读分享，希望对您有所帮助。
篇1：英语考研长难句练习题和解析
英语考研长难句练习题和解析
【提要】考研英语信息 : 【5】
The trouble is, as soon as you’ve been given a clean bill of health you’re back at your desk, facing the same situation that led to depression and compulsive behavior problems in the first place.
【核心词汇】
bill n.法案，账单，清单
depression n.沮丧，不景气
compulsive a.强制的`，强迫的
as soon as一……就
【结构分析】
主干是主系表结构The trouble is...其中表语部分由从句充当。在表语从句中，包含as soon as，翻译为“一……就……”，它引导条件状语从句as soon as you’ve been given a clean bill of health。现在分词短语facing the same situation作you’re back at your desk的伴随状语，关系代词that引导的定语从句led to depression and compulsive behavior problems in the first place修饰先行词the same situation，that在从句中做主语，lead to意为“导致”。
【参考译文】
问题是，一旦你得到清楚的健康证明，你就得立刻回到你的办公桌，并且首先就要面对与原来曾导致沮丧和强迫性行为问题的同样的情形。
篇2：考研英语阅读长难句解析方法
考研英语阅读长难句解析方法
依据《全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语考试大纲解析》可知，考研阅读理解的命题趋势及核心考点没有实质性变化，而我们知道，长难句是历年考研阅读理解中必然要出现的，因此成功地攻克长难句必将有助于提高阅读部分的分值。鉴于此，教研中心特对广大考生怎样攻克长难句进行专项指导。
一、什么是长难句
复合长句即包含各种语法关系和特殊句型的句子。英语多长句，这是因为英语可以有后置定语。扩展的后置定语可以是带从句或长修饰语的复杂句。这些句子结构复杂，逻辑性强。但是，无论多长的句子、多么复杂的结构，它们都是由一些基本的成分组成的。只要弄清英语原文的句法结构，找出整个句子的中心内容及其各层意思，然后分析各层意思之间的逻辑关系。下面我们从结构、逻辑以及考研英语中的长难句(最有典型性)来解析长难句的翻译以及理解。
二、英语长句的特点
英语长句一般指的是各种复杂句，复杂句里可能有多个从句，从句与从句之间的关系可能包孕、嵌套，也可能并列，平行。所以翻译长句，实际上我们的`重点主要放在对各种从句的翻译上。从功能来说，英语有三大复合句，即：①名词性从句，包括主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句；②形容词性从句，即我们平常所说的定语从句；③状语从句。
一般说来，英语长句有如下几个特点：
1)结构复杂，逻辑层次多；
2)常须根据上下文作词义的引申；
3)常须根据上下文对指代词的指代关系做出判断；
4)并列成分多；
5)修饰语多，特别是后置定语很长；
6)习惯搭配和成语经常出现。
三、考研英语难句分析方法
第一类：复杂修饰成分
句子本不难，但是修饰成分多且长。1、从句(定语、状语、同位语从句等等)；2、介词短语修饰；3、分词修饰；4、不定式修饰。经常是在同一个句子里既有从句又有介词短语，且都不止一个。
例：The methods that a community devises to perpetuate itself come into being to preserve aspects of the cultural legacy that that community perceives as essential。
翻译：一个社会设计出来保存自己的方法得以形成来保持那个社会认为最重要的一些方面。读法：初级：读出主谓宾来。分析：主语：The methods； 谓语：com into being；不定式to引导表示目的状语。高级：直接读，见后。考查能力：考查考生的大脑容量。
第二类：大段的插入与或同位语，打断读者的思路，割裂前后之间的语义，造成理解的困难。我们称之为“打岔”。
例：Moreover, I can feel strong emotions in response to objects of art that are interpretations，rather than representations，of reality。
读法：初级：跳过插入语； 高级：直接读；查查能力：大脑容量+抗干扰能力
第三类：倒装：由于应该放在句首的成分太长，因此倒装到句末。也是一种人为现象。
例：That sex ratio will be favored which maximizes the number of descendants an individual will have and hence the number of gene copies transmitted。
读法：需要经过训练后才能按正常语序读。
正常语序：That sex ratio which maximizes the number of descendants that an individual will have and hence the sex ratio which maximize the number of gene copies transmitted will be favored。
高级读法：直接读，见后：考查能力：大脑的排序能力
第四类：省略：相对以上三种来讲比较简单，在短句中大家一般都可以看出。
但是如果在长句中出现，特别是如果与以上三种之一甚至几种同时出现，也会给同学们带来很大的困难。如上例原句中的省略，在第二个the number of 前省略了“sex ration which maximizes”.
篇3：考研英语阅读 长难句解析方法
考研英语阅读 长难句解析方法
依据《20全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语考试大纲解析》可知，2010考研阅读理解的命题趋势及核心考点没有实质性变化，而我们知道，长难句是历年考研阅读理解中必然要出现的，因此成功地攻克长难句必将有助于提高阅读部分的分值。鉴于此，教研中心特对广大考生怎样攻克长难句进行专项指导。
一、什么是长难句
复合长句即包含各种语法关系和特殊句型的句子。英语多长句，这是因为英语可以有后置定语。扩展的后置定语可以是带从句或长修饰语的复杂句。这些句子结构复杂，逻辑性强。但是，无论多长的句子、多么复杂的结构，它们都是由一些基本的成分组成的。只要弄清英语原文的句法结构，找出整个句子的中心内容及其各层意思，然后分析各层意思之间的逻辑关系。下面我们从结构、逻辑以及考研英语中的长难句(最有典型性)来解析长难句的翻译以及理解。
二、英语长句的特点
英语长句一般指的是各种复杂句，复杂句里可能有多个从句，从句与从句之间的关系可能包孕、嵌套，也可能并列，平行。所以翻译长句，实际上我们的`重点主要放在对各种从句的翻译上。从功能来说，英语有三大复合句，即：①名词性从句，包括主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句；②形容词性从句，即我们平常所说的定语从句；③状语从句。
一般说来，英语长句有如下几个特点：
1)结构复杂，逻辑层次多；
2)常须根据上下文作词义的引申；
3)常须根据上下文对指代词的指代关系做出判断；
4)并列成分多；
5)修饰语多，特别是后置定语很长；
6)习惯搭配和成语经常出现。
三、考研英语难句分析方法
第一类：复杂修饰成分
句子本不难，但是修饰成分多且长。1、从句(定语、状语、同位语从句等等)；2、介词短语修饰；3、分词修饰；4、不定式修饰。经常是在同一个句子里既有从句又有介词短语，且都不止一个。
例：The methods that a community devises to perpetuate itself come into being to preserve aspects of the cultural legacy that that community perceives as essential。
翻译：一个社会设计出来保存自己的方法得以形成来保持那个社会认为最重要的一些方面。读法：初级：读出主谓宾来。分析：主语：The methods； 谓语：com into being；不定式to引导表示目的状语。高级：直接读，见后。考查能力：考查考生的大脑容量。
第二类：大段的插入与或同位语，打断读者的思路，割裂前后之间的语义，造成理解的困难。我们称之为“打岔”。
例：Moreover, I can feel strong emotions in response to objects of art that are interpretations，rather than representations，of reality。
读法：初级：跳过插入语； 高级：直接读；查查能力：大脑容量+抗干扰能力
第三类：倒装：由于应该
篇4：考研英语 四种类型长难句解析
考研英语 四种类型长难句解析
》研究生入学考试中，英语命题专家喜欢在句子难度或长度上做文章，目的无外乎是想通过这种方式来干扰考生正常的阅读习惯和思维方式，以此考查考生阅读综合能力。从根本上来说，要提高对长难句的理解并没有太多捷径，必须多看。下面我们将分别分析阅读中常见的几种类型的长句，希望大家能从中得到一些启示。1.含有分隔结构的句子
分隔结构在英语表达中经常出现，它的作用主要是调整语气、补充信息以及平衡句子结构。在阅读长难句中出现较多的分隔形式是插入语。
插入语有很多不同的类型，可以是一个词，比如形容词(strange，etc)、副词(personally，honestly，fortunately，luckily，etc);可以是短语，比如形容词短语(worst still，sure enough，etc)、介词短语(of course，in short，as a matter of fact，by the way，etc)、分词短语、动词不定式(to be sure，to tell you the truth，etc);也可以是句子，比如if I may say so，if you don't mind，that is(to say)等都是非常常见的插入语。通常，去掉句中这些插入成分不会影响句子的完整性。如：I say /hear，I think /hope / believe，you know / see，what's more，I'm afraid，do you think / suppose等。
如：His journey to the e-mail hell began innocently enough when, as chairman of Computer Associates International，a software company，he first heard how quickly his employees had accepted their new electronic-mail system. 这是一个典型的含有多个插入语的长句。as chairman of Computer Associates International是he的同位语，a software company是Computer Associates International的同位语，它们将从属连词when引导的时间状语从句的主语分隔开了。去掉这些插入语后，这句话的意思就很清楚了。
2.被从句拉长的简单句
这些句子较长，有时甚至出现一个从句套另一个从句、环环相扣的情况。遇到这种情况时，考生在阅读过程中经常会遗忘前面刚刚读过的内容，往往读了几遍，还搞不清整个句子的结构。
如：Probably there is not one here who has not in the course of the day had occasion to set in motion a complex train of reasoning, of the very same kind, though differing in degree, as that which a scientific man goes through in tracing the causes of natural phenomenon.
事实上，无论多长多复杂的句子，都是由主干和修饰成分这两部分组成的。主干是整句话的主体框架，主要指主谓宾结构(He plays basketball)或主系表结构(This is an apple)。修饰成分可以是单词，可以是短语，也可以是从句，无论是何种形式，它在句中都只起到修饰和补充主干的作用。因此，对于这种类型的长句，我们要做的首先是确定主干，然后理清从句结构，再按照所确定的各个成分想想句子的大意，再联系上下文看是否与语境相吻合。如果前后文理不通，则可能是分析有误，这时就需要对句子结构重新进行分析。
用上述的方法简化上述的那句话，就会发现，句子的主干是there is not one，后面都是修饰成分。定语从句who has not…natural phenomenon修饰先行词one，在这个定语从句中，of the very same kind…as that…作为后置定语修饰a complex train of reasoning;句中有一个让步状语though differing in degree作为分隔结构，把the very same…as that分隔开;as that which…中的`that是先行词，被which所引导的定语从句修饰。
在考研英语阅读中，常用来拉长简单句的就是定语从句和状语从句。尽管很多考生对这两种从句并不陌生，但仍然被它们迷惑，分不清单词、短语和从句之间的相互关系。比如分不清定语从句所修饰的先行词是哪一个，或者一个从句究竟该在哪里结束。出现这种情况并不完全是因为对语法不够熟悉，而是因为忘记了一个重要的原则――在没有列举的情况下，以句号为标记的一句话中一般只能有一个谓语动词。因此，从句应该在其后的第一个谓语动词和第二个谓语动词之间结束。如果从句中出现连词and等，则有可能连接了两个谓语动词，那么从句就应该在第二个和第三个谓语动词之间结束，以此类推。
3.多个并列句构成的长句
这是一种相对简单的情况，我们首先要做的就是找到并列连词(and, so, but, or, etc)，然后将长句分解成多个分句，理清各分句的内部结构和句意，然后再综合考虑全句，即可明了整句话想表达的意思。如：In the 1970s he was a surgeon at Yale，had a wonderful wife and five beautiful children，but he was terribly unhappy. 需要注意的是，这种类型的句子中常出现省略现象，比如在本例中，第二个并列句即had前面就省去了and he。
4.复合从句
对于复合从句，要首先找出从属连词并确定主句，接着按照简单句的分析方法，梳理各分句的结构和意义，然后确定各从句的性质，也就是明确每个从句在句中分别修饰哪些词语或结构，最后综合整体考虑全句大意。如：In the early industrialized countries of Europe the process of industrialization―with all the far-reaching changes in social patterns that followed-was spread over nearly a century, whereas nowadays a developing nation may undergo the same process in a decade or so.
在这个句子中，首先确定连词whereas(而)表示对比，确定主句并找出主干结构，也就是the process of industrialization―was spread over nearly a century，破折号中间的短语是附加成分，修饰主语中心词process，其中social patterns后面that followed是一个定语从句。
最后提醒大家，在进行长难句分析时，还应特别注意以下几点：
(1)是否有省略、倒装等现象;
(2)明确替代词的所指对象;
(3)判断并列成分的层次;
(4)句首的并列连词and、or、but、for通常起承上启下的作用，不要将它们归入后文的句法分析;
(5)在有多个从句的复合句和并列句中，要准确判断状语(单个词、短语或从句)究竟是全句的修饰语还是某个从句或词语的修饰语。
/kaoyan/篇5：考研暑期备考 英语长难句解析
考研暑期备考 英语长难句解析
从结构来说，英语句子中，除了谓语之外，其它的成分均可以由从句或者非谓语动词来充当。从句本身是一个完整的句子，因此，从句与从句之间的关系可能包孕、套嵌，也可能并列、平行。从功能来说，英语有三大复合句，即:①名词性从句，包括主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句;②形容词性从句，即我们平常所说的定语从句;③状语从句。非谓语动词可以有自己的时态和语态(过去分词除外)，也可以跟自己的逻辑主语、宾语、状语等成分，构成一个非谓语动词结构。由于非谓语动词和从句的这些特点，使英语句子从理论上讲可以无限延长。
英语长句的分析方法：去枝叶，留主干。
1)划出句子中的定语从句和状语从句;
2)划出所有介词短语(位于be动词后的除外);
3)名词性从句看作一个整体,找出句中所有的谓语结构、非谓语结构、介词短语和从句的引导词;
4)非谓语动词结构看作一个整体;
5)找出全句的主语、谓语和宾语，即句子的主干;
6)分析从句的结构和非谓语动词的内部结构。
长难句分析的步骤举例
经典例题(考研完型填空第二段)
In a significant tightening of legal controls over the press, Lord Irvine, the Lord Chancellor, will introduce a draft bill that will propose making payments to witnesses illegal and will strictly control the amount of publicity that can be given to a case before a trial begins.
分析:
第一，划出定语从句和状语从句: that will propose making payments to witnesses illegal and will strictly control the amount of publicity /that can be given to a case /before a trial begins.
第二，划出介词短语：In a significant tightening of legal controls over the press
第三，句子的结构分析:
(1)主干结构是主语(Lord Irvine含同位语the Lord Chancellor)+将来时谓语(will introduce)+宾语(a draft bill);
(2)that引导的定语从句修饰draft bill,其中，will propose 是第一个谓语，making payments to witnesses illegal是一个动名词短语做宾语，在动名词短语内部，payments to witnesses做making的宾语，illegal是宾补;第二个谓语是will strictly control, the amount of publicity是它的宾语。that can be given to a case before a trial begins是孕含有一个时间状语从句(before a trial begins)的定语从句，修饰publicity。
请大家按照上述步骤认真分解以下的句子，并把分解后的句子读熟甚至背过，则基本上可以解决考研长难句问题。
考研英语十大长难句实例分析
1. When a new movement in art attains a certain fashion, it is advisable to find out what its advocates are aiming at, for, however farfetched and unreasonable their principles may seem today, it is possible that in years to come they may be regarded as normal.
结构分析: 本句是由for连接的两个因果关系的并列句;for前面的部分是表示结果的分句，此句结构是when引导的状语从句+主句，主句主干结构是... it is advisable to ...，其中，it是形式主语，真正的主语是后面的动词不定式结构;动词不定式结构中又包含一个what引导的宾语从句，做find out的宾语;for后面的部分是表示原因的分句，此句结构是：让步状语从句+主句，主句主干结构是... it is possible that... ,it 是形式主语，真正的主语是后面的that从句;
译文: 当一场新的艺术运动形成某种时尚时，理应弄清其倡导者的目标所在，因为无论他们的准则在今天看来是多么牵强附会、不可思议，将来都有可能被视为正常的。
2.The overall result has been to make entrance to professional geological journals harder for amateurs, a result that has been reinforced by the widespread introduction of refereeing, first by national journals in the nineteenth century and then by several local geological journals in the twentieth century.
结构分析: 本句主干部分是The ... result has been to make entrance ... harder for amateurs...; 第一个逗号后面是一个名词性短语，中心词是the result，后面是that引导的定语从句;此定语从句中包含两个并列状语，其结构为first by ... and then by ... ;
译文: 其总的结果是使业余人员的论文进入专业性地质学杂志更加困难，而审稿制度的全面引进使论文发表的难度进一步加大，这一制度开始是在19世纪的全国性杂志出现的，进入20世纪后也在一些地方性地质杂志实行。
3.Sad to say, this project has turned out to be mostly low-level findings about factual errors and spelling and grammar mistakes, combined with lots of head-scratching puzzlement about what in the world those readers really want.
结构分析: 本句主干结构是... this project has turned out to be ... findings ...; findings前面的mostly low-level是findings的修饰成分，后面的about ... 介词结构是宾语findings的宾语补足语;逗号后面的过去分词结构combined是状语成分，表示一种伴随的.动作;
译文: 遗憾的是，这次调查的结果只获得了一些肤浅的发现，诸如新闻报道中的事实错误、拼写或语法错误，以及特别令人费解的困惑：读者到底想读些什么。
4.A lateral move that hurt my pride and blocked my professional progress prompted me to abandon my relatively high profile career although, in the manner of a disgraced government minister, I covered my exit by claiming “I wanted to spend more time with my family.”
结构分析: 本句句子主干是A lateral move ... prompted me to ...; move后面是that引导的定语从句，修饰a lateral move, that在从句做主语;第一个逗号后面的是状语成分，两个逗号之间的部分是插入语;
译文: 一次平级的人事调动伤了我的自尊心，并阻碍了我的事业发展，这促使我放弃自己地位较高的职业，当然，就像颜面扫尽的政府部长那样，我也掩饰说“我想多陪陪家人”.
5.I have discovered, as perhaps Kelsey will after her much-publicized resignation from the editorship of She after a build-up of stress, that abandoning the doctrine of “juggling your life” , and making the alternative move into “downshifting” brings with it far greater rewards than financial success and social status.
结构分析: 本句主干结构是I have discovered ... + that引导的宾语从句;as引导的句子是伴随状语，可以看作是插入语;在that引导的宾语从句中，主语是两个动名词短语:abandoning ... and making ...，谓语是brings;
译文: 我已经发现(由于压力过大，凯尔茜已多次公开宣称要辞去《她》杂志编辑的职务，在这之后她也许会同样发现)：放弃“忙忙碌碌”的生活哲学，转而过一种“放慢生活节奏”的生活所带来的回报，比经济成功和社会地位更有价值。
6.Despite a spell of initial optimism in the 1960s and 1970s when it appeared that transistor circuits and microprocessors might be able to copy the action of the human brain by the year , researchers lately have begun to extend that forecast by decades if not centuries.
结构分析: 本句主干结构为researchers ... have began to extend that forecast...;逗号前面为状语成分，包含一个when引导的定语从句，其中it是形式主语，appear后面是that引导的是主语从句;
译文: 虽然一开始在20世纪60年代和70年代有过一段乐观的时期--那时候仿佛晶体管电路和微处理器的发展将使它们在能够模仿人类大脑的活动--但是最近研究人员已经开始将这个预测延后数十年，甚至数百年。
7. Although it ruled that there is no constitutional right to physician-assisted suicide, the Court in effect supported the medical principle of “double effect”
篇6：考研英语难句解析
1、If the tradition of ambition is to have vitality, it must be widely shared; and it especially must be highly regarded by people who are themselves admired, the educated not least among them.
【分析】
本句的最大难点是分号的作用，通常分号是分割两句话，但本句中if引导状语从句，主句是分号和and共同连接的并列结构，一个是it must be widely shared ，一个是it especially must be highly regarded by people ，people后面是who引导的定语从句。结尾处among them表明后面是其中的一类人，the educated 是表示一类人，not least前面省略了谓语动词is。is to have在此处具有强调的意思，可以译成“就是”。
【词汇】
vitality生命力(vital作形容词是“重要的”)
be widely shared广泛接受
【译文】如果雄心的传统要焕发生命力，那么它就应该收到广泛的认同;尤其是要受到自己也受人仰慕的人士的尊重――那些接受过良好教育的人最应该包括在内。
2、The coming of age of the postwar baby boom and an entry of women into the male-dominated job market have limited the opportunities of teenagers who are already questioning the heavy personal sacrifices involved in climbing Japan’s rigid social ladder to good schools and jobs.
【分析】
本句句式比较简单，主语是一个并列结构the coming of age of the postwar baby boom和an entry of women into the male-dominated job market，谓语动词是have limited，the opportunities of teenagers是宾语，后面是who引导的定语从句，从句中are questioning是谓语部分，the heavy personal sacrifices是宾语，后面是involved引导的分词结构做后置定语。
【词汇】
postwar战后
baby boom婴儿潮
dominate统治
question质疑
the heavy personal sacrifice巨大的个人牺牲
rigid严格的，严酷的
social ladder社会阶梯
【译文】战后生育高峰的到来，女性打入男性主导的劳动力市场，这些限制了青少年的发展机会。青少年已经在不停地质疑，为了爬上日本国内那通往优秀学校和体面工作的严酷的社会阶梯，他们做出的巨大个人牺牲到底值不值得。
3、An invisible border divides those arguing for computers in the classroom on the behalf of students' career prospects and those arguing for computers in the classroom for broader reasons of radical education reform.
【分析】
这句子稍短，主要是学习一种这种独特句型的翻译。首先先分析结构：主语是An invisible border，谓语是divides，宾语是and连接的两个those，后面都接了arguing for computers…的分词结构。
通常情况下，当句中出现and连接两个较长的并列结构，而且结构完全一致，通常译成“…两者：前者是…后者是…”。
【词汇】
argue主张―argue for支持，持积极态度
on behalf of代表
prospect前景
radical激进的--->彻底的
【译文】一条无形的界限将支持计算机进课堂的人分为两类：前者是出于对学生职业前景的考虑，后者是基于彻底的教育改革这样的一些更广泛的理由。
4、If experiments are planned and carried out according to plan as faithfully as the reports in the science journals indicate, then it is perfectly logical for management to expect research to produce results measurable in dollars and cents.
【分析】
本句是if引导的状语从句，从句中experiments are planned and carried out是主体部分，according to plan是状语，as faithfully as是比较级，the reports… indicate是比较的对象，主句结构是it is adj. for … to do…，expect …to…是固定结构，measurable in dollars and cents是形容词结构做results的后置定语。
【词汇】
plan v.规划 n.计划<注意此处的翻译>
carry out实施
faithfully如实地
journal杂志
perfectly完全地，非常<写作句型：it is perfectly logical for sb. to do…对于某人做…是完全合理的>
produce results产生结果
measurable可以衡量的
【译文】如果试验是像科学杂志上的报告所示的那样如实地根据计划规划和实施，那么对管理层来说，期待研究能够产生可以用金钱衡量的结果是完全合理的。
The great interest in exceptional children shown in public education over the past three decades indicates the strong feeling in our society that all citizens, whatever their special conditions, deserve the opportunity to fully develop their capabilities.
【分析】
本句主语的核心词汇是The great interest in exceptional children，后面是分词结构作后置定语shown in public education over the past three decades，其中over the past three decades是时间状语。谓语动词是indicates, 宾语是the strong feeling in our society, that引导分割式同位语从句解释the strong feeling，从句中all citizens是主语，后面是插入语，谓语部分是deserve the opportunity to…。
分割式同位语从句指的是先行词和关系词之间还带有其他成分，通常是介词短语。如何判断是不是分割式，一是看从句的动词形式，比方说I know many places in the world that have their own cultures. 从句中动词是have，显然前面的名词是places，不是world。二是根据句意。
【词汇】
show great interest in对…表示强烈的兴趣
deserve the opportunity to 享有…的机会
【译文】在过去的30年中，公共教育中显示的对残疾儿童的巨大关注表明了我们社会中的一种强烈的情绪，那就是所有的公民，不管其情况有多特殊，都应享有充分发展其能力的机会。
篇7：考研英语长难句1精选
61. Recently federal policy makers have adopted an approach intended to accelerate development of the minority business sector by moving away from directly aiding small minority enterprises and toward supporting larger, growth-oriented minority firms through intermediary companies.
62. SCIENCE FICTION can provide students interested in the future with a basic introduction to the concept of thinking about possible futures in a serious way, a sense of the emotional forces in their own culture that are affecting the shape the future may take, and a multitude of extrapolations regarding the results of present trends.
63. There is one particular type of story that can be especially valuable as a stimulus to discussion of these issues both in courses on the future and in social science courses in general-the story which presents well-worked-out, detailed societies that differ significantly from the society of the reader.
64. In performing this “what if…” function, SCIENCE FICTION can act as a social laboratory as authors ruminate upon the forms social relationships could take if key variables in their own societies were different, and upon what new belief systems or mythologies could arise in the future to provide the basic rationalizations for human activities.
65. If it is true that more people find it difficult to conceive of the ways in which their society, or human nature itself, could undergo fundamental changes, then SCIENCE FICTION of this type may provoke one’s imagination to consider the diversity of paths potentially open to society.
66. That is, SCIENCE FICTION has always had a certain cybernetic effect on society, as its visions emotionally engage the future-consciousness of the mass public regarding especially desirable and undesirable possibilities.
67. It is often pointed out that, however ingenious they may be about future technologies, many SCIENCE FICTION writers exhibit an implicit conservative bias in their stories, insofar as social projections are either ignored or based on variations of the present status quo or of historical social systems reshuffled whole-cloth into the future.
68. Most SCIENCE FICTION authors have found it as hard as most other mortals to extrapolate social mores different from those operating within their own milieu, so that, it has been charged, far from preparing the reader for future shock, SCIENCE FICTION is a literature that comfortably and smugly reassures him that the future will not be radically different from the present.
69. The physicist rightly dreads precise argument, since an argument that is convincing only if it is precise loses all its force if the assumptions on which it is based are slightly changed, whereas an argument that is convincing though imprecise may well be stable under small perturbations of its underlying assumptions.
70. John Dewey has said in all seriousness that the part played by custom in shaping the behavior of the individual as over against any way in which he can affect traditional custom, is as the proportion of the total vocabulary of his mother tongue over against those words of his own baby talk that are taken up into the language of his family.
71. But assuming that the contrast I have developed is valid, and that the fostering of skills and creativity are both worthwhile goals, the important question becomes this: can we gather a way, from the Chinese and American extremes, a superior way, perhaps striking a better balance between creativity and basic skills?
72. Even the folk knowledge in social systems on which ordinary life is based in earning, spending, organizing, marrying, taking part in political activities, fighting, and so on, is not very dissimilar from the more sophisticated images of the social system derived from the social sciences, even though it is built upon the very imperfect samples of personal experience.
73. The question of whether the decrease in plant fecundity caused by the spraying of pesticides actually causes a decline in the overall population of flowering plant species still remains unanswered.
74. This fact alone makes imperative in any education system the study of the kinds of works discussed in this section.
75. The explosion of a bomb in the streets of a city whose name no one had ever heard before may set in motion forces which end up by ruining one’s carefully planned education in law school, half a world away.
76. These questions are political in the sense that the debate over them will inevitably be less an exploration of abstract matters in a spirit of disinterested(公正的，没有私利的) inquiry than an academic power struggle in which the careers and professional fortunes of many women scholars Conly now entering the academic profession in substantial numbers―are at stake, and with them the chances for a distinctive contribution to humanistic understanding, a contribution that might serve as an important influence against increasing sexism in our society of fundamental, unparalleled change.
77. But the plight of the world compels his unwilling attention, and when he sees that human stupidity and greed are about to plunge Europe into chaos and destroy the most glorious civilization the world has ever known, he feels that it is high time for men of good sense and good will to intervene and to take politics out of the hands of the plutocrats of the Right and the woolly-minded idealists of the Left.
78. Never when controversy avoided the subjects which are large and important enough to arouse enthusiasm was the mind of a people stirred up from its foundations and the impulse given which raised even persons of the most ordinary intellect to something of the dignity of thinking beings.
79. Where there is an unspoken convention that principles are not to be disputed or where the discussion of the greatest questions which can occupy humanity is considered to be closed, we cannot hope to find that generally high scale of mental activity which has made some periods of history so remarkable.
80. Interest in historical methods has risen less through external challenge to the validity of history as an intellectual discipline and more from internal quarrels among historians themselves.
81. While historians once revered its affinity to literature and philosophy, the emerging social sciences seemed to afford greater opportunities for asking new questions and providing rewarding approaches to an understanding of the past.
82. Social science methodologies had to be adapted to a discipline governed by the primacy of historical sources rather than the imperatives of the contemporary world.
83. During this transfer, traditional historical methods were augmented by additional methodologies designed to interpret the new forms of historical evidence in the historical study.
84. There is no agreement whether methodology refers to the concepts peculiar to historical work in general or to the research techniques appropriate to the various branches of historical inquiry.
85. The fallacy applies equally to traditional historians who view history as only the external and internal criticism of sources, and to social science historians who equate their activities with specific techniques.
86. I shall define an intellectual as an individual who has elected as his primary duty and pleasure in life the activity of thinking in Socratic(苏格拉底) way about moral problems.
87. Whether to use tests，other kinds of information, or both in a particular situation depends, therefore, upon the evidence from experience concerning comparative validity and upon such factors as cost and availability.
88. In general, the tests work most effectively when the qualities to be measured can be most precisely defined and least effectively when what is to be measured or predicted cannot be well defined. Tests do not compensate for gross social inequality, and thus do not tell how able an underprivileged youngster might have been had he grown up under more favorable circumstances.
89. While in America the trend started as a reaction to the economic decline----after the mass redundancies caused by downsizing in the late '80s---and is still linked to the politics of thrift, in Britain, at least among the middle-class down-shifters of my acquaintance, we have different reasons for seeking to simplify our lives.
90. An invisible border divides those arguing for computers in the classroom on the behalf of students’ career prospects and those arguing for computers in the classroom for broader reasons of radical educational reform.
91. Very few writers on the subject have explored this distinction C indeed, contradiction C which goes to the heart of what is wrong with the campaign to put computers in the classroom.
92. An education that aims at getting a student a certain kind of job is a technical education, justified for reasons radically different from why education is universally required by law.
93. It is not simply to raise everyone’s job prospects that all children are legally required to attend school into their teens.
94. Banking on the confusion between educational and vocational reasons for bringing computers into schools, computer-education advocates often emphasize the job prospects of graduates over their educational achievement.
95. But, for a small group of students, professional training might be the way to go since well developed skills, all other factors being equal, can be the difference between having a job and not. Of course, the basics of using any computer these days are very simple. It does not take a lifelong acquaintance to pick up various software programs.
96. When a new movement in art attains a certain fashion, it is advisable to find out what its advocates are aiming at, for, however farfetched and unreasonable their principles may seem today, it is possible that in years to come they may be regarded as normal.
97. It is a curious paradox that we think of the physical sciences as “hard”, the social sciences as “soft”, and the biological sciences as somewhere in between.
98. New forms of thoughts as well as new subjects for thought must arise in the future as they have in the past, giving rise to new standards of elegance.
99. Never mind something as complex as conversation: the most powerful computers struggle to reliably recognize the shape of an object, the most elementary of tasks for a ten-month-old kid.
100. There are those who assert that the switch to an information-based economy is in the same camp as other great historical milestones, particularly the Industrial Revolution.
101. I shall define an intellectual as an individual who has elected as his primary duty and pleasure in life the activity of thinking in Socratic(苏格拉底) way about moral problems.
102. He explores such problem consciously, articulately, and frankly, first by asking factual questions, then by asking moral questions, finally by suggesting action which seems appropriate in the light of the factual and moral information which he has obtained.
103. His function is analogous to that of a judge, who must accept the obligation of revealing in as obvious a matter as possible the course of reasoning which led him to his decision.
104. This definition excludes many individuals usually referred to as intellectuals----the average scientist for one. I have excluded him because, while his accomplishments may contribute to the solution of moral problems, he has not been charged with the task of approaching any but the factual aspects of those problems.
105. Like other human beings, he encounters moral issues even in everyday performance of his routine duties--- he is not supposed to cook his experiments, manufacture evidence, or doctor his reports.
106. But his primary task is not to think about the moral code, which governs his activity, any more than a businessman is expected to dedicate his energies to an exploration of rules of conduct in business. During most of his walking life he will take his code for granted, as the businessman takes his ethics.
107. Never when prolonged arguments avoided the subjects which are huge and important enough to rouse enthusiasm was the mind of a people stirred up from its foundations and the impulse given which raised even persons of the most ordinary intellect to something of thinking beings.
108. Creating a “European identity” that respects the different cultures and traditions which go to make up the connecting fabric of the Old continent is no easy task and demands a strategic choice - that of producing programs in Europe for Europe.
109. Declaring that he was opposed to using this unusual animal husbandry technique to clone humans, he ordered that federal funds not be used for such an experiment-although no one had proposed to do so--and asked an independent panel of experts chaired by Princeton President Harold Shapiro to report back to the White House in 90 days with recommendations for a national policy on human cloning.
110. That group--the National Bioethics Advisory Commission (NBAC)-has been working feverishly to put its wisdom on paper, and at a meeting on 17 May,members agreed on a near-final draft of their recommendations.
111. NBAC will ask that Clinton’s 90-day ban on federal funds for human cloning be extended indefinitely, and possibly that it be made law. But NBAC members are planning to word the recommendation narrowly to avoid new restrictions on research that involves the cloning of human DNA or cells-routine in molecular biology.
112. In a draft preface to the recommendations, discussed at the 17 May meeting, Shapiro suggested that the panel had found a broad consensus that it would be morally unacceptable to attempt to create a human child by adult nuclear cloning.
113. NBAC plans to call for a continued ban on federal government funding for any attempt to clone body cell nuclei to create a child. Because current federal law already forbids the use of federal funds to create embryos (the earliest stage of human offspring before birth) for research or to knowingly endanger an embryo’ s life, NBAC will remain silent on embryo research.
114. For example, ALH84001 has been on earth for 13,000 years, suggesting to some scientists that its PAH’s might have resulted form terrestrial contamination.
115. Two years later, the McKay team announced that ALH84001, which scientists generally agree originated on Mars, contained compelling evidence that life once existed on Mars.
116. Many commentators believe that this change had already occurred in 1871 when―following a dispute between the House and the Senate over which chamber should enjoy primacy in Indian affairs―Congress abolished the making of treaties with Native American tribes.
117. But in reality the federal government continued to negotiate formal tribal agreements past the turn of the century, treating these documents not as treaties with sovereign nations requiring ratification by the Senate but simply as legislation to be passed by both houses of Congress.
118. This historian assumes that Alessandra had goals and interests different from those of her sons, yet much of the historian’s own research reveals that Alessandra acted primarily as a champion of her sons’ interests, taking their goals as her own.
119. Most pre-1990 literature on businesses’ use of information technology (IT)―defined as any form of computer-based information system―focused on spectacular IT successes and reflected a general optimism concerning IT’s potential as a resource for creating competitive advantage.
120. The findings support the notion, founded in resource-based theory, that competitive advantages do not arise from easily replicated resources, no matter how impressive or economically valuable they may be, but from complex, intangible resources.
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